Our knowledge of the different stages of development of the human landscape is, in general, derived from excavation finds. Using these, the different cultural groups are classified, named, and related to an area according to distinctive features of the finds (e.g. certain patterns on pottery, burial forms, tools, etc.). Such traces of civilisation in wide parts of Europe become evident for the first time during the Neolithic Period, when the Ribbon Ceramic civilisation [1] (Bandkeramik) spread across large areas of the continent starting from the Mediterranean.
The Neolithic Period [2] or Younger Stone Age refers to the period from about 5500 BC to 1800 BC. The main innovation of this period compared to the previous Mesolithic [3] (Middle Stone Age) and Palaeolithic [4] (Old Stone Age) period is the transition from the stage of hunters and gatherers to a culture determined by agriculture and livestock rearing. As a consequence man became sedentary, built solid, permanent houses, developed agricultural areas, cultivated economically viable plants, domesticated animals and later even bred them, etc. This fundamental change in the human way of life is often also referred to as the "Neolithic Revolution".
From a palaeo-climatic point of view the Neolithic Period corresponds to the post-glacial age of the "Atlanticum" when Central Europe was dominated by a warm, relatively wet climate, in which forests could spread extensively over the continent. It is assumed that in the warmer areas of loess covered valleys and basins, there was relatively sparse mixed oak forest, and in drier locations even vegetation similar to that of steppe and heath land. These places were preferred by man in his earliest settlement because he could proceed with a relatively primitive hoe cultivation without the necessity of clearing the land of forest, which would have far exceeded his abilities. The question if and to what extent clearance of forest actually took place during this period has greatly interested especially German geographers for more than half a century.
The range of products made by the Neolithic population was already quite diverse. Mainly cereals (spelt, later wheat and barley) were cultivated, which - being processed into gruel or unleavened bread - played an important role as food. Domesticated animals (cattle, sheep, goats, pigs) were another important source of food (milk, meat), provided raw materials (e.g. wool, hide), or were used as working animals. The archaeological finds of the Neolithic period already showed traces of a society based on the division of labour and specialised in the different economic sectors (agriculture, handicrafts, trade). The Neolithic settlements were probably loosely grouped farmsteads with 5 to 7 metre wide and 10 to 35 metre long houses [5] constructed from wood, rendered with clay, and roofed with straw, reeds, or bark. These earliest settlements were classified as belonging to the Ribbon Ceramic civilisation (Bandkeramik) on the discovery of ribbon-shaped ornaments [6] (ribbon = German: Band) on pieces of pottery and earthenware vessels.
In the Middle and Young Neolithic Period the Ribbon Ceramic civilisation [7] broke up into several smaller groups [8] in the different areas and in the following decades and centuries. Only mentioned here are, for example, the Münchshofen, Altheim, and Cham [9] civilisations, as well as the Globular Amphora and the Funnel Beaker culture [10]. During the late Neolithic Period (2500 to 1800 BC) two civilisations seemed to be predominant: The Corded Ware culture ( dagger [11] , cup [12] ), a population living mainly on livestock rearing and pastoral farming but also on hunting and fishing, and the Bell Beaker culture [13] who inhabited chiefly those parts of Central Europe which were favourable for settlement.
Around 1800 BC the Bronze Age [14] commences with the invention of extracting and processing ore to produce materials and tools, which enabled an intensified farming and in general enriched material culture ( dagger [15] , cup [16] ). For the same period, it has been proved that cultivated land was extended into the lower regions of the mountains and in some parts even into the higher locations of the Alps. Here, ore mines [17] often motivated the foundation of new settlements. The sandy geest areas in the north German lowlands were increasingly integrated in the process of settlement. Important characteristics in the change of the cultural landscape during this period are the earliest use of the plough (yoked hooks, plough of "Walle") and the further increase of distinction within society in connection to the intensification of craft and trade [18] ( map [19] ).
Changes also took place in the nature of the settlements. During the Bronze Age, isolated farms coexisted beside settlements [20] consisting of several farms. One type of house frequently occurring especially in northern Germany is the so-called "Wohnstallhaus", a building with three aisles of a considerable length (up to 35 metres) which was used for living, as store room and for the housing of livestock in winter. In some areas, man began to build separate stables and pile buildings for the storage of food. The Bronze Age may chronologically be further subdivided with regard to the different burial forms, the most important phases being the Tumulus Bronze Age (16th to 12th century BC, Hügelgräberbronzezeit) and the Urn Burial Bronze Age [21] (13th to 9th century BC, Urnenfelderbronzezeit).
The last pre-Christian millennium corresponds to the Iron Age [22], of which the Hallstatt period [23] (or Hallstatt culture, 800 to 500 BC) and the La Tene period [24] (or La Tene culture, 500 to the birth of Christ) are considered to be the most important periods. The latter is the culture of the Celts [25], who spread from their original area of settlement on the Northern edge of the Alps across wide parts of western and southern Europe during the last pre-Christian millennium. To the north, their expansion was inhibited by the so-called "Germanic barrier".
Iron [26] provided man with a much harder material than bronze which was nevertheless further used to produce tools and works of art. The production of salt was developed further and reached its first peak in the Hallstatt period. Salt production had already been initiated in the Bronze Age, in addition to which salt mining was introduced in the Iron Age when salt played an important role in trade. Other inventions were amongst other things the use of graphite as a dye and to improve the heat-resistance of clay, and even the production of glass in small amounts. Also significant was the production of leather, for which the Celts were renown. They organised trade with routes covering long distances across the whole of Europe. One of the most important of these trade links in the Iron Age was the Rhine-Rhone-Trench which connected the Central Europe to the Mediterranean.
Besides crafts and trade [27] as the fundamental economic basis of the Celts, the intensification of agriculture [28] played an important role as well. In the growing of grain, rye and oats were used in addition to wheat and barley. Leguminous plants were being increasingly grown. It has been proved that, since the Hallstatt period, man began to influence the development of cattle and horse by breeding. New breeds of poultry and sheep were imported via the trade connections. The diversity of the economic structure which was accompanied by a highly complex (and hierarchically structured) society found its expression in the character of the settlements, though these were not at all standardised.
Nonetheless the building of houses and types of settlements [29] was very much in the tradition of the northern Alps. Among the residential buildings, long (single or double aisle) post or stilt constructions with walls made of wattle and daub, and roofed with a construction of ridge pillars or rafters. Stables and out-buildings were usually situated separately from the residential ones. In many areas these settlements were fortified with a wall and a moat and were situated in a high position in a naturally sheltered place. In more open areas, the settlements - here usually scattered farms or a small farm groups - were protected by palisades.
The development of such a complex society based on the division of labour resulted in the building of the earliest non-agricultural settlements. During the Hallstatt period the first forts were built which were only used as refuge for the people in case of attack and not at all equipped for permanent residence. In the La Tene period the first forts [30] were founded as permanent residences for princes, often linked to larger, fortified settlements which had developed for the first time north of the Alps during the second pre-Christian century. Caesar called those settlements Oppida [31] (sing.: Oppidum) which referred to a centre of production, administration, trade and religion [32]. Their function as centres reaching much farther than the local surrounding can be seen in the various coinages of the Oppida. Celtic art [33] was especially rich and is documented in many cases among other things with burial objects [34] (Picture [35]).
With the birth of Christ and the new AD era, a new stage of development started in Europe. Between 56 and 52 BC Caesar had conquered Gaul. In the ensuing years the Romans pressed towards Germania. At the same time they managed to expand their hold on the British Isles as far as Scotland. What they did not achieve was to subjugate the Germanic tribes who beat them at the Battle of the Teutoburger Wald [36] in 9 AD. The construction of the Limes (germanicus) [37] was an external indication of a divided Central Europe, which changed fundamentally under the Roman influence in the southern part. In comparison, the Germanic North has not yet revealed many of the secrets of its early development.
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