Unit 13: Environmental risks and damage in Germany

(Gerald Lamker, Christoph Müller)

The Federal Republic of Germany is affected by a great number of ecological threats and dangers. In general terms, ecological dangers can be understood as the impacts of whatever action of human beings on the equilibrium of ecosystems that cause harm or damage to the life conditions of the living nature. This text focuses on some of the environmental risks and their effects on our ecosystems by interpreting a wide range of different topics. The specific problem of Germany's dying forests (Waldsterben) is discussed in the second half of the unit as an example of the complexity of natural hazards.

Ecological dangers threaten our atmosphere, our soil, water resources as well as all other biotic and abiotic areas. Concerning the atmosphere, one of the well known threats is the destruction of the stratospheric ozone layer. This problem is caused by industrial emissions as well as the widespread industrial and domestic use of substances that destroy ozone such as CFC [1]. Even though there are regional and temporal variations in the intensity of these emissions, the reduction of the density of the ozone layer [2] can be observed as a general consequence. Especially, the combustion of huge quantities of fossil energy sources (e.g. coal) causes increasing emissions of CO2 [3] and correspondingly increasing CO2-concentrations [4] in the atmosphere. The threatening consequence is that the CO2-layer retains heat-rays from the earth within the atmosphere, a phenomenon known as green house effect [5].

Another atmospheric problem is air pollution which must be considered under two basic aspects: emission problems (such as pollution caused by an industrial plants) and imission-problems (pollution affecting any kind of life and/or materials).

There are several main components responsible for air contamination (data refer to the Federal Republic of Germany only): sulphur dioxide [6], nitrogen dioxide [7], carbon dioxide [8], volatile organic compounds [9], dust [10]. This list can be extended by lower stratum ozone [11] which is the result of a complex photochemical reaction. These substances have negative impacts on both, the biotic and abiotic environment, as can be seen from many data-sources that are available on this issue (e. g. concentration of sulphur dioxide [12], nitrogen oxide [13] and stratum ozone [14]. Especially in conurbations [15] and larger cities, emissions tend to show higher concentrations. Consequences are, among others, frequent smog-events [16], respiratory problems [17] (such as (pseudo-) croup, lung cancer); damage to solid materials and structures [18] (such as bridges, buildings and others), to forests, etc.

Referring to soils, risks occur basically through chemical substances such as the so-called "Wet Deposits" [19] (Nasse Depositionen) and heavy metal concentration [20]. Furthermore damage results from excessive use of pesticides and fertilizers (especially nitrogen and phosphate). Yet another problem comes from the surface sealing [21] (e.g. through pavements, road construction etc) and the continuing use of land for industrial, residential, tourist, and other uses. The impacts of these and other activities, changes in land use etc. on ground water levels and qualities, on the food chain [22], and on the biotic composition of soils are evident and may cause long term damage which cannot yet fully be determined at present.

Besides the atmosphere and soils, water is also extremely threatened by environmental damage. The increasing use of water [23] by households, the industry, etc., but even more the great variety of chemical substances (detergent and cleaning agents [24], entries as phosphor [25] and nitrogen [26]) put under stress the natural water-balance and, what is even worse, have negative impacts on the quality of this resource. Possible consequences include shortages of drinking water, water eutrophia (definition [27] / results [28]) and deterioration of water quality [29]. The quality status of Germany's rivers and other surface waters, based on biological analyses was mapped in a "Water-Quality Map of Germany". One of the findings of theses analyses was that much of the ecological damage to water has its origin in trash (solid and/or liquid). A great variety of solid and muddy waste [30] has been determined. In this respect, extremely high risks are caused by garbage disposal sites [31] and industrial waste deposits [32] and/or contaminated sites (such as old tailings, landfills etc).

Finally, we have to take that damage into consideration that results from rays [33] and noise [34]. An alarming increase of the numbers of people suffering from reduced capability of hearing, but also genetical mutations on different animal species have been recorded over the last decades. In order to detect and to record harmful substances, Germany has installed a network of stations for the measurement harmful substances (Schadstoffmeßstation [35]) which provides useful data as basic information for any action taken in order to protect and to preserve our environment.

A convincing yet frightening example of the complexity of ecological damage are the dying forests of Germany, known as "Waldsterben". Looking at the present situation of the German forests [36] (c.f. forest almanach [37]), it is obvious that true natural forests have almost disappeared in Germany. Reasons for this can be seen in the land clearings that have already started during Antiquity but reached a peak during the High Middle Ages. Increasing population numbers and the process of industrialization boosted the use of lumber and wood (e. g. mining, shipbuilding, salt production) in the 19^th century. However, as early as the middle of the 19^th century, new strategies concerning the use of our forests were implemented. The basic policy was to harvest only as many trees as there were replaced by natural growth, thus preparing the ground for a sustainable forest management [38]. Reforestation programs were implemented, hence fast growing coniferous trees were preferred to the better adapted, but slower growing deciduous species. Economically defendable, this kind of replacement put stress on and caused harm to the environment and destabilised considerably the ecosystem of the forests as well as the variety of wildlife.

Today, the economic and ecological function of the forests needs special attention. Currently about 22 Mio. ha (55 million acres, corresponds to some 30 % of Germany's total surface) are covered by forests. Not only are they the source of sustainable forest use with its dependant wood processing industries [39], but also other uses including preservation [40], water management [41], recreation [42], etc. have to be considered. Especially the latter is gaining in importance, not surprising in a country with a population density as high as 230 inhabitants per km².

A great variety of factors play together to affect the ecosystem [43] of our forests today causing all kinds of stress and harms including reduced vitality and diverse illnesses of the trees, leading in a final stage to the death of entire forests (Waldsterben). Man made damage (such as air pollution, sulphur dioxide and nitrogen oxide emissions, heavy metals, ozone) count amongst the main reasons for this frightening process. On the other hand, there are natural factors like extreme weather-situations (such as heat waves, coldsnaps, drought, storms) and extreme geographical locations (steep slopes, rocks etc.) causing specific kinds of damage effects just as could be the case from insects, moulds (fungus) and unsuitable ecological factors in a given situation. "Waldsterben" [44] can mostly be explained by the combination (text) of all these factors. However the human impacts turn out to be the most significant. The harmful substances can either cause diseases of the leaves and needles or can affect the trees indirectly through acid rainfall. The visible symptoms are as follows: Leaves and needles become yellow and eventually die; coniferous trees only keep the youngest needles at the end of the branches; treetops [45] show significant growth anomalies; etc. Furthermore, the growth potential as well as the vital development of the trees decrease considerably, crowns often take the form of a stork's nest, and the thickness of the stems diminishes. Moreover, the centers of the stems especially of coniferous trees show more and more so-called "wet-cores", with dark water-enriched wood surrounded by a lighter wood mantle. A sign of severe damage can also be detected through fungus populations piercing the bark of the trees.

Even in the early 1970s, large-scale damage [46] to the forests was recognized in Germany, including areas far away from industrial zones. The great variety of tree illnesses as well as the accelerating paste and the progressing number of long term diseases has generated the term of "Waldsterben". The dying forests became quickly (and still are) a national concern. To Germans, forests have a high significance as an indicator of a healthy environment, which can partly be explained by the importance forests have in Germany as part of the natural heritage which to protect is one of the obligations and responsibilities Germans feel in order to protect parts of their identity. From this highly emotional position it can be explained why each of the German Länder has established its own Forestry Management and Protection policy as is mirrored in the "reports on the forest conditions (Waldzustandsbericht) [47]" (comment [48]) annually established for each of them. These reports contain and determine objectives [49] and conditions [50] of forest management and environmental protection and represent blueprints for action plans to be developed by giving a detailed picture of the damage recorded. A final picture of the Harz-mountains [51] in the state of Lower Saxony may demonstrate the dimension of the "Waldsterben" and explain, why Germans have such a strong concern about their forests.