Canada is a major forest nation) [1] that has relied on forests for its development as a country. Today, forest products [2] continue to be the single largest contributor [3] to the nation's balance of trade [4] ($31.6 billion in 1998). Besides timber, Canadians place a high importance on the recreational and tourism values of forests and foreign tourists value our national parks and the opportunity to view our natural landscape. In addition, as a country that accounts for 10% of the world's forest land [5] and almost 20% of global trade in forest products, Canada also has important international obligations. Canada is playing a significant role in international discussions [6] on forests and is implementing, within its borders, the principles of sustainable forest management [7]. In response to the growing recognition of the value of its traditional ecological knowledge, Canada is working to increase the participation of Aboriginal peoples in the forest management process.
The Canadian Forest Service [8] policy promotes the sustainable development [9] of Canada's forests and competitiveness of the Canadian forest sector for the well-being of present and future generations of Canadians. The Canadian Forest Service (CFS) also provides forest science and expertise. Further, it has brought stakeholders together to develop the National Forest Strategy, the Canadian and International Model Forest programs, as well as criteria and indicators [10] for sustainable forest management. Natural Resources Canada [11] (NRC) is also mandated to promote sustainable development and responsible use of Canada's forests and other resources (Draper, 1998: 309).
In 1992 the Canadian Council of Forest Ministries [12] released a first national forest strategy document. The signing of the first Canada Forest Accord on March 4 of the same year ratified this commitment to sustainable forest management. Together these documents represent the new directions for forest management in Canada [13] ever since (Draper, 1998: 309). They already contained a catalogue of criteria and related indicators which can be considered as the basic principles of Canadian forest management.
The Canadian Forest Service Strategic Plan [14] as well as the Canada Forest Accord [15] were updated in 1998. In the new versions they establish the strategic directions that the CFS will be pursuing over the next five years in meeting its commitments and obligations to forest stakeholders, partners and clients, both nationally and internationally. The strategic plan outlines the environmental context in which the CFS operates, identifies key issues and challenges, describes strategic directions, and presents the CFS's response to these issues as key science and policy commitments. It is a blueprint for action that will guide the preparation of the annual operational plans. The Canadian Council of Forest Ministries further developed six criteria [16] and related indicators to help achieve sustainable forest management, including: the conservation of biological diversity; the maintenance and enhancement of forest ecosystem conditions and productivity; the conservation of soil and water resources; the forest ecosystem contributions to global ecological cycles, multiple benefits to society; accepting society's responsibilities regarding sustainable development. They designed the indicators to be insightful about human activities, environmental conditions, ecological and socioeconomic effects, and societal response to the importance of the harvest, socioeconomic implications, and changes to the ecosystem (Mitchell, 1997: 265-266). Its strategic directions included the enhancement of Canada's capacity to practice sustainable forest management through sound forest science and the development of strategies designed to improve Canada's understanding of forest ecosystems.
The Plan is also meant to strengthen Canada's ability to measure its progress toward sustainable forest management through the achievement of a national framework. It will also promote the application of sustainable forest management by actively promoting on-the-ground forest research. This will include activities associated with product development and testing patent registration and user transfer. A national consensus will be developed on forest issues by advancing Canada's forest agenda [17] through the establishment of strategic alliances and partnerships with the provinces and territories, forest industries, Aboriginals, academia, environmental groups, private wood lot owners and other forest stakeholders. With growing provincial concerns about managing forest resources effectively for Canadians, the provinces and territories have initiated new approaches to forest management, expanded protected areas, enacted tougher environmental regulations, and invested in forest renewal (Draper, 1998: 309).
The strategic plan of the CFS will also put Canada in a position to address global forest issues [18] by promoting global sustainable forestry while protecting Canada's interest in forest products trade. Finally, the strategic plan will deliver federal responsibilities in forestry and give other federal agencies scientific and policy advice on forest issues. The Canadian government believes that a strong legally binding agreement that builds on sustainable forest principles is the best way to ensure the international will and cooperation needed to reverse the tide of deforestation.
Another initiative toward sustainable forest management is the model forest program [19] that began in 1991. The model forest program started with the selection of ten working-scale forests [20] between 100,000 and 2,500,000 hectares in size. A partnership of organizations and interested individuals manages each model forest and determines particular objectives for which their forest will be managed. There are several partners for each model forest, including provincial governments, forest industries, First Nations [21], recreational users, community organizations, private landowners, government agencies, environmental and conservation organizations, and academics. The greatest advantage of the model forest program is that a full discussion of different viewpoints in the earliest stages of forest management planning will hopefully lead to an understanding of the important dimensions of the forest and its uses, with appropriate solutions to problems. The lands involved in model forest projects include national parks, private lands, First Nations lands [22], and predominant provincial lands (Draper, 1998: 313).
The sustainable development initiatives for each model forest, reflect what is important to each region. They have addressed wildlife concerns in the Western Newfoundland Model Forest [23], where programs have focussed on the conservation and protection of the pine marten's mature forest habitat. Whereas, in the Foothills, Manitoba, and Lake Abitibi Model Forests, the fate of the woodland caribou is the major concern. Alternatively, deer monitoring programs are occurring in the Fundy Model Forest [24]. Finally, improved scientific research about coastal rain forest ecosystems should help stakeholders with forest conservation in British Columbia's Long Beach Model Forest (Draper, 1998: 313). Initiatives of this kind are important steps to protect and to preserve the forest ecosystem [25] for future generations.
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