Canadian shores border on three vast oceans [1] in which our nation has vital interest: the Arctic, the Pacific and the Atlantic. These oceans offer important economic [2], sociocultural and recreational opportunities that have shaped the nation's history and identity. On January 31, 1997, Canada's Oceans Act [3] became law. The Act positions Canada to move to a more integrated national ocean management approach based on sustainability, the precautionary approach, and the integration of activities occurring in and influencing on our oceans. The Oceans Act also sets the framework for an ecosystem approach for the management of Canada's oceans and ocean resources. The Oceans Act calls for cooperation and collaboration in the oceans sector, led by the Minister of Fisheries and Oceans [4], including the development and implementation of a national ocean management strategy [5].
Canada's policy for the management of fish habitat provides a comprehensive framework for the conservation, restoration and development of fish habitats [6]. The policy's broad objective is to achieve a net gain in the productive capacity of Canada's fish resources. In the daily management of fish habitats, the policy's principle of no net loss of productive capacity, promotes sustainable development [7] by requiring mitigation to avoid damage to the marine environment, or to compensate for the replacement of destroyed habitats. It also promotes an integrated approach to resource management and establishes a framework for reconciling competing uses.
Canada's history of governance of marine environments reflects both federal and provincial responsibilities [8] and jurisdictions. The federal government is responsible for all issues in waters below the mean high-water mark, except aquaculture where they have assigned certain responsibilities to the provinces. Provincial jurisdictions [9] include provincial lands, shorelines, and freshwater resources, except navigable waters, inland fisheries, federal lands, and certain areas of the seabed. Federal and provincial jurisdictions overlap in matters of species and habitat conservation. Aboriginal governments are also involved in the management of human activities in marine environments (Draper, 1998: 262).
The Department of Fisheries and Oceans (DFO) is responsible at the federal level for the marine environment and economy and also includes Coast Guard functions and other activities [10]. Primarily, DFO has managed commercially harvestable marine species, and is now also responsible for all marine species (except sea birds) and marine mammals (Draper, 1998: 262). There have been some excellent plans developed for marine conservation, pollution control, and species and habitat protection. However, the collapse of numerous fish stocks [11] is indicative that Canada has experienced difficulties in managing the commercial fishery. In spite of the government's commitment to environmentally sustainable development, there are many reasons for the failure to prevent degradation of marine waters and species. Reasons include political inertia, fragmentation of responsibility, and missing legislation. Fragmentation tends to cause environmental considerations to be lost among the competing, more powerful economic interests, however, the federal government has been generating policies and guidelines to deal with this problem. Among the policies developed are the National Marine Conservation Policy [12] and the Canadian Arctic Marine Conservation Strategy [13] (Draper, 1998: 262, 263).
In 1994, the advancement of marine conservation looked optimistic with the advent of four key events. First, was the release by the National Advisory Board on Science and Technology of its report on oceans and coasts. This report included %quot;a comprehensive marine environment protection system that would safeguard Canada's concerns for the health, enjoyment, and the economic welfare of future generations%quot; (Draper, 1998: 263). Second, was Parks Canada's release of its revised %quot;Guiding Principles and Operational Policies%quot; [14]. This report included a section on establishing marine conservation areas and recognized the need to design them to accommodate varying levels of human activity. Third, was the %quot;Amendments to the Canada Wildlife Act%quot;, which enabled the establishment of wildlife areas out to 200 nautical miles. This was an important means of extending environmental regulation to protect marine mammals and their habitat. Finally, the DFO released %quot;A Vision for Ocean Management%quot;, which outlined the essentials of a new ocean management strategy for Canada and recommitted the DFO to the creation of a Canada Oceans Act (Draper, 1998: 263).
Before the passing of the Canada Oceans Act, the provinces were active on their own accord. Newfoundland [15], Nova Scotia [16] and New Brunswick had formulated coastal zone management policies and plans. Other cooperative initiatives included the Marine Protected Areas Working Group, and the Burrard Inlet Environmental Action Plan to reduce toxic loadings in the inlet. Municipalities, with their solid waste and sewage management responsibilities, also have important roles to play in improving the health of Canada's marine systems. The municipalities can do this through careful urban planning and appropriate waste management practices (Draper, 1998: 264).
Six principles form the %quot;fishery of the future%quot;. These principles include: conservation; industry capacity balanced with resource capacity; fishery conducted by professionals; access to the resource through multilicensed enterprises, with the recognition of specialized fleets; government and industry operating in partnership, with binding agreements signed by both parties; and Aboriginal rights must be respected (Draper, 1998: 264).
Water pollution has wide-ranging impacts on health, the environment and the fishing industry. Canada has significantly reduced the flow of pollution into its waters, but the future continues to hold enormous challenges as environmental issues become larger and more complex. To be successful, Canadians must recognize the value of water and its fisheries and focus on pollution prevention.
Although not all required legislative elements [17] are in place, Canada is making progress in revising existing legislation and in creating necessary new legislation concerning the protection of marine environments. Efforts to implement coastal zone management in Canada, however, continue to lag.
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