One of Canada's most vital natural resources is fresh water [1]. The country is the steward of nine percent [2] of the world's renewable fresh water, a seemingly indefinite potential. However, although Canada has one of the highest standards [3] of clean water in the world, pollution [4] remains an important problem in some of its waters. In certain areas, people cannot swim or eat the fish they catch. Three important water pollution problems [5] affect the quality of Canada's freshwater and marine areas: toxic substances, excess nutrients and sedimentation. Toxic substances from industrial, agricultural and domestic use are some of the main pollutants. The substances [6] enter Canadian waters in a variety of ways, such as industrial sources, oil or chemical spills, municipal wastewater effluents and atmospheric deposition from Mexico and the United States and is a continuous topic of discussion among the three North American partners [7]. The Canada-United States Joint Inland Pollution Contingency Plan [8] is one of the basic agreements that have been signed on environmental issues between the US and Canada in the recent past.
Since 1970, the Canada Water Act [9] has constituted an important legal basis for water management and the use of water in Canada. The implementation of the Federal Water Policy [10] is the responsibility of all departments and agencies of the federal government. The policy was formulated after several years of intensive consultation, both within and outside the government. It addresses the management of water resources, by balancing water uses with the requirements of the many interrelationships within the ecosystem. The overall objective [11] of the federal water policy is to "encourage the use of freshwater in an efficient and equitable manner consistent with the social, economic and environmental needs of present and future generations". This objective should not be just the government's, but all individual Canadians must embrace the fundamental "value of water" notion.
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The federal government has identified two main goals with respect to water. The first goal is to protect and enhance the quality of the water resource [13]. This means anticipating and preventing the contamination of all Canadian waters by harmful substances and working to encourage the restoration of those waters that are contaminated. Stringent regulations and standards alone cannot protect water resources; instead economic incentives may be necessary. The policy emphasizes the promotion of the "polluter pays" principle, which will redirect the inevitable costs of pollution reduction to those who are responsible.
The second goal is to promote the wise and efficient management and use of water [14]. This means establishing rules and procedures that respect the value of water to all sectors of society and to the environment. One key innovation to achieving this goal is to recognize the value of the resource through the promotion of realistic pricing [15] for the amount of water used. In addition, one must respect the value of recreational water uses and other similar uses where direct charges are not applicable. As a result, the governments could reduce their water investments and improve the operation efficiency of water systems through improved technology and practices. Further, the private sector and individuals will benefit in direct savings to particular water users, growth of environmental industries, personal health and peace of mind that comes from knowing that Canada's water will be safe for both present and future generations [16].
The federal government proposes to use five strategies to reach its two goals. The five strategies are broad courses of action, which define a supportive, yet flexible, role for the federal government. First, concerning water pricing, Canada's per capita water use [17] rates are among the highest in the world and the prices charged for it are among the lowest. Canadians have become too accustomed to a never-ending supply of low-priced water through government subsidies and an emphasis on supply-side management. Nominal charges have fostered the overuse of water, which consequently has resulted in the need for larger, more costly infrastructures to treat, store and distribute the water, and to treat wastewater. Realistic water pricing [18] would make the users conscious of the real value of the resource and its delivery systems, and would likely reduce the demand on those systems. Further, it would also encourage efficiency through improved technology and lead to water conservation and reduced pressures for costly system expansion. Provincial and local governments exercise the pricing of water.
Second, science leadership, scientific and socioeconomic research, technological development and data collection [19] are all essential tools for dealing with the increasing scope and complexity of the emerging resource problem(s). Effective management of the water resource is dependent upon a scientifically sound knowledge base developed in cooperation with all responsible jurisdictions and the private sector.
Third, integrated planning done by the federal government endorses an integrated approach to the planning and development of water resources so that increasing demands upon the quality and quantity of the resource are met efficiently and equitably. The integrated approach takes into account all water uses and water-related activities, within whatever political, administrative, economic or functional boundaries define them. Watersheds are becoming the preferred spatial unit for water resource planning. The interdependence and growing competition among water users, and the recognition of recreational, social, environmental and heritage values are additional reasons for the increasing importance of cooperative planning between the various levels of government agencies and institutions.
Fourth, with legislation, both provincial and federal statutes govern water resource management [20] in Canada. Whereas the federal government [21] is responsible for the basic legislation, provinces exercise proprietary rights over the water resource and have the authority to legislate on all aspects of water supply, use, pollution control, hydroelectric and non-nuclear power development, irrigation and recreation.
Finally, Canadians need to be fully aware of the pressures on their water resources and therefore on themselves and their environment. The federal government acknowledges the necessity of providing opportunities for public opinion on water decisions that have broad social, economic or environmental implications. A well-informed public and clearly defined channels for public participation provide the best assurance that water management decisions will take into account the full spectrum of public values.
The Canadian Water Resources Association [22] (CWRA) believes through their sustainability ethic, that wise management of water resources must be achieved by genuine commitment to ecological integrity and biological diversity to ensure a healthy environment; a dynamic economy; and social equity for present and future generations. In accepting and applying this sustainability ethic, the CWRA will practice integrated resource management by linking water quality, quantity and the management of other resources, recognizing hydrological, ecological, social and institutional systems, and recognizing the importance of watershed and aquifer boundaries (Mitchell, 1997: 39).
Recognizing the value, limits and costs of water resources, will hopefully encourage water conservation and the protection of water quality so that it may be provided in adequate quantity and quality. Its consumptive and non-consumptive values to both humans and other species must also be acknowledged. Water management issues will be resolved by: employing planning, monitoring and research; providing multi-disciplinary information for decision making; encouraging active consultation and participation among all members of the public; and finally by ensuring accountability through open communication, education and public access to information (Mitchell, 1997:39).
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