The Minerals and Metals Policy of Canada [1] affirms provincial jurisdiction over mining and delineates a role for the government in minerals and metals that is tied to federal responsibilities. It also commits the government to pursue partnerships with stakeholders in addressing issues within its jurisdiction. It describes the government's role, objectives and strategies for the sustainable development of Canada's mineral and metal resources. The policy was developed after extensive consultations involving federal departments and agencies, provincial and territorial mines ministries, industry, environmental groups, labor and Aboriginal communities.
Dramatic change has occurred in the mining industry, in recent years, brought on by several challenges. First there have been concerns about the state of the natural environment [2]; second, the rapidly growing competitive forces brought on by globalization and the emergence of new mineral-producing countries in the developing world; third, a need for a more efficient and effective federation; and finally, the need to achieve sustainable development [3]. The new Minerals and Metals Policy addresses these challenges and responds to important government commitments. It also gives the government the direction and decision making tools that will help to ensure that the industry flourishes in the 21st century. The Policy represents the first attempt by the government to incorporate the notion of sustainable development into a comprehensive policy document in the natural resources area. It supports the government's agenda for employment and growth by presenting a framework that promotes the industry's prosperity in Canada [4].
The policy has six major objectives. First, to integrate the idea of sustainable development in federal decision-making. Second, to ensure the international competitiveness of Canada's minerals and metals industry in an open and liberal global trade and investment framework. Third, to advance the notion of sustainable development of minerals and metals at the international level through partnerships with other countries, stakeholders, and multilateral institutions and organizations. Fourth, to establish Canada as a global leader in promoting the safe use of minerals and metals, and their related products. Fifth, to promote Aboriginal involvement in minerals and metals-related activities. Finally, to provide a framework for the development and application of science and technology to enhance the industry's competitiveness and environmental stewardship.
The policy enunciates many of the principles for sustainable development through a responsive public policy framework, such as: the role of the market mechanism; the role of regulation; the role of non-regulatory approaches; the importance of science; endorsement of the notion of pollution prevention through the recognition of the polluter pays principle; and affirmation of the precautionary principle.
The government will also pursue the following strategic long-term directions in science and technology related to minerals and metals. This will include providing a comprehensive geoscience information infrastructure, and supporting a sustainable mineral and metals industry through science and technology. This will promote technological innovation both in mining operations and in the safe and efficient use of minerals and metals. The government will enhance the health and safety of Canadians; promote the competitiveness of the Canadian industry; and develop value-added mineral and metal products.
Canada has an important role in fostering technological development in the mining and metals industry. The research activities of the Canada Centre for Mineral and Energy Technology [5] (CANMET), a federal agency, include the pursuit of sustainable development objectives in advancing mineral science. The federal government has also been supportive of developing stronger links [6] between the scientific community and policy organizations to advance the sustainability objectives (Draper, 1998: 345). Canada remains among the foremost producers of minerals and metals in the world, and the leading exporter. The industry continues to play an essential role in Canada's economy.
Concerning environmental objectives, "mine reclamation seeks to rehabilitate a mine site to a viable and wherever practical, self-sustaining ecosystem that is compatible with a healthy environment and other human activities" (Draper, 1998: 341). Each province determines reclamation standards for mining, while the federal government has direct responsibility for reclamation in Yukon and the Northwest Territories, and for uranium. Mine reclamation is done at the federal level through the Fisheries Act, the Canadian Environmental Assessment Act [7], and through tax policies, and science and technology activities (Draper, 1998: 340, 341). In 1986 the Canadian mining industry and governments realized that new reclamation technology needed to be developed and consequently established a task force to conduct research on acidic drainage. After the research was completed, they made a recommendation that led to the formation of the Mine Environmental Neutral Drainage [8] (MEND) program in 1989. Since its inception, more than $10 million has been spent on research to find ways to reduce the liabilities caused by acidic drainage from reactive tailings and waste rock, as illustrated by the "New" Tailings Area Closure [9] project at the Falconbridge site in Sudbury. What has been confirmed through the MEND program is that prevention is the best solution for acidic drainage (Draper, 1998: 341).
In terms of future sustainability, the market for recycled minerals and metals has increased, and has become an important economic venture. The combination of reuse and recycling practices [10], and the long life span of minerals and metals, can increase the stock of extracted minerals, thus reducing the need for primary extraction. Most metal products produced in Canada are made from a mixture of primary and recycled metals. Further, mines are no longer abandoned. Instead, they are closed following legislated federal or provincial procedures. When mines are closed and maintained according these procedures, there are fewer long term negative impacts. However, the difficulty is that they abandoned mines in the past, and the abandoned metal mines potentially introduce the most serious mining-related environmental problems (Draper, 1998: 341).
Canada may have sustainable development policies for the mining and metals industry, but the question remains concerning implementation. Like any other environmental policy or initiative, it may look pro active and appropriate in theory, but how well are the objectives carried out in reality? What does "sustainable development" mean in the mining context? Sustainable development in terms of environmentalism has meant development that meets the needs of the present without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs. However, with mining, this definition is not completely relevant.
The mining industry involves non-renewable resources, once we have mined all of the uranium out of an area, for example, there will not be a return of uranium for the next generation. Instead the notion of sustainable development should be reflected in the actions and methods used [11] to extract the minerals from the earth. For example, the environmental policy of BHP Diamonds Incorporated [12] speaks of developing effective contingency plans and reporting procedures for environmental incidents, and for cleaning up and rehabilitating land [13] after mining it. The mining industry seems reactive, in that it damages the land, and then works to repair it. However, this may not be true for all companies. The Teck Corporation [14], a mining company, believes that the most effective way of managing environmental risks is to reduce them or prevent them from occurring in the first place. Teck is a strong supporter of a variety of government, industry and university-based research programs whose purpose is to further the understanding of mining's impact on the environment and to develop new methodologies and technologies [15] to mitigate these impacts. The environmental data management software, EQWin is used to manage Teck's air, surface water and groundwater quality data, and to facilitate regular assessments of environmental performance.
Canadian mining companies for the most part appear to have some environmental focus and direction. For example, INCO [16] undertook in 1993 the largest environmental project in North America with the rebuilding of the Sudbury, Ontario smelting complex. They did this to reduce emissions of sulphur and dioxide. They designed the new facility to curtail emissions and to improve productivity and competitiveness. As a result the Sudbury smelting complex is among the most modern and efficient in the world. In addition, INCO has also restored thousands of hectares [17] of impacted land by planting seedlings [18]. One concern that INCO raises is that if it were not for economic incentives, would environmental projects like this one occur? Further, how much incentive is there for environmental projects that cost the company money, instead of making them money, or it is simply a public relations move?
Other companies, such as Melloy & Associates Ltd. (Edmonton) [19] are more vague with their environmental policies and may use "token" environmental language: "the company undertakes to act responsibly as steward of the resources in its charge for the well being of its employees and the communities and countries in which it operates". It is hoped that all companies would have this policy, but what is more important is what these companies are doing to enforce and act on these policies. Knowing exactly what these companies are doing, or not doing, is more beneficial, than hearing what they say they are or are not doing.
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