Unit 9: First Nations and Nunavut

(Holly Innes and Alfred Hecht)

The indigenous peoples of Canada can be subdivided into two major groups [1]: Indians and Inuit (or Eskimo). Both groups have the same ethnic origin and came apparently from a broadly Mongoloid racial stock whose geographic origin was the northeastern part of the Asian continent. According to the most convincing scientific interpretation these people entered the New World during the glaciation period via the Bering Straits. At that time, the Bering area was probably dry land, free from glacial ice. Due to the lower sea level this area became an inter-hemispheric land bridge easy to cross. Hence, this immigration did not occur in a single wave. Over the millennia, in response to fluctuations in temperature, ice sheets, and ocean levels, there were different groups of immigrants of more or less identical origin. This explains why there are some anthropological differences between North American Indians. Likewise this explains the development of different civilizations according to their new environment over time. The Inuit [2], more similar to the classically defined Mongoloid type than other Native Americans, are thought to have arrived in the New World only 5000 years ago. They can be subdivided into seven regional subgroups according to different cultural characteristics and economic adaptations [3], the use of different tools, hunting or fishing techniques, etc. Today, the total number of Inuit in Canada is about 25,000, supposedly just as many as when the Europeans arrived on the continent some 450 years ago.

Yet even more complex is the ethnic and cultural subdivision of the Canadian Indians [4]. Their number today is about 300,000. The great variety of Indian civilizations in Canada can be explained as a result of ecological adaptation processes these peoples experienced over time according to the natural environment that determined their life style. Despite these differences the Indian population of Canada can be classified into regional subgroups according to the differences in their traditional economies. In the woodlands of the Subarctic, life was based on hunting with a great variety of animals including moose, caribou, deer, and many others. Fishery was important, too. In the southeast region the life style was based on mixed maize horticulture (Indian corn) and hunting, fishing, and gathering. In the Prairies, Indian civilization was dominated by the bison. This animal was a primary source of food and was equally important as a source of raw materials for clothing, shelter, and tools. The greatest variety of Indian cultures can be defined in the Canadian West with the tribes of the Interior Plains and the Indian cultures of the Pacific coast region [5], occasionally referred to as cedar civilizations. The latter were almost exclusively oriented to the sea. The basic catch was salmon, obtainable in unbelievable quantities. Remarkable were the woodworking skills of these tribes. In the north, the yellow cedar provided the soft, readily workable wood, red cedar was used more extensively in the south of the area. The elegant houses were placed in two or sometimes three rows. Most characteristic were the totem poles, the posts which stood at the gable end of the house, where the entrance was also placed. From the wood and the fibers of the cedar, all kinds of tools [6] were made including clothing, pots, and many others.

These few introductory remarks already indicate that the First Nations of Canada [7] are outstandingly heterogeneous, in terms of culture, language, economics and politics. This has been true since the times before the Europeans arrived. It is as difficult to generalize about First Nations as it is to generalize about any other diverse nation of the world. Presently, members of the First Nations live in small, fly-in communities, on reserves near cities, and increasingly, intermingled with other residents of Canada in cities and towns. Another distinct people are the Inuit who live in Canada's Arctic. For thousands of years, most Inuit have made their living in seasonal harvests of oceans and coastal lands. Most now live in small communities, yet still depend on the fruit of the land for their livelihood (Abele, 1997: 120). The following examples provide some insight into the differences of First Nation life in Canada.

Most of the tribal groups oft the southeast region were Algonkin in language, with a strong Iroquois-speaking [8] wedge introduced into the Algonkin tribes of the eastern Great Lakes. Parts of these are the Six Nations of the Grand River [9] Ontario, who have a total membership of 19,002 with 9,527 of those living on reserves. They are composed of the Cayuga, Mohawk, Oneida, Onondaga, Seneca and Tuscarora Nations. Located on the Grand River, the reserve is the largest First Nations community in Canada. The Reserve government consists of twelve Councilors and a Chief Councilor who meet in a modern Council House in the village of Ohsweken. The elementary school system includes five schools that promote academic studies including Aboriginal languages and First Nations cultural curricula. Community support services include a day care center, senior citizens' residence, medical services facility, children's aid, correctional services counseling, First Nations constables, family violence counseling, a crisis intervention center, drug and alcohol abuse services, welfare services and a recreation center. In addition to these public institutions [10], a variety of local businesses is available including a tourism facility, gas stations, craft stores, art galleries, restaurants and a post office. Tourism Six Nations [11] is a Destination Marketing Organization that ensures quality visitor services, through awareness, education, marketing and communications. They developed local tourism as an economic generator that will enhance the quality of life in the Six Nations communities [12].

The Barrie Area Native Advisory Circle [13] (BANAC) represents eleven Aboriginal communities in Simcoe County and York Region, Ontario. Its goal is to provide consultation and support for community development initiatives. One facet of their research is the Internet. Their research showed that the use of the Internet [14] by Aboriginal communities is far below that of the "mainstream" society. One of BANAC's goals is to extend Internet access to all members, particularly to those in remote communities. They recognized that improving access through the "Information Highway" is but one step toward the advancement of the Aboriginal community.

The Saskatchewan Indian Cultural Centre [15] seeks to help maintain the cultural identity of the five cultures of the province: Saulteaux, Dakota, Assiniboine, Dene and Cree. The fundamental aim of the Centre is to encourage people to maintain a proud and positive self-image. The Centre attempts to do this by developing Indian education, which teaches them about themselves spirituality, emotionally, psychologically and intellectually. Through the various departments of the Cultural Centre they try to preserve the traditional cultures, and to develop methods of applying these traditional values and skills in a changing and dynamic modern culture. Another example is Aboriginal Capital Corporations [16]. This is a web site whose goal is to provide information, tools and connections needed to learn more about the Aboriginal economy and to develop or expand personal Aboriginal businesses.

Political changes have occurred in the Canadian North [17] at the end of the millenium. The territory of Nunavut [18] was created out of a desire to bring government closer to the people, both physically, and in spirit. Yellowknife [19], the capital of the Northwest Territories, from which they governed Nunavut until April 1999, is as far from Iqaluit as Vancouver is from Thunder Bay, Ontario. Iqaluit [20], now the territory's capital is, for most residents of Nunavut, closer to home [21]. As well a policy of decentralized government [22], in which territorial government departments are headquartered in various of the larger Nunavut communities, brings the administration of day-to-day affairs still closer [23]. Perhaps more importantly, the new territory permits territorial-level government to reflect the circumstances of the central and eastern Arctic, which are very different economically and culturally than those in the western Arctic. The creation of Nunavut also returned to Inuit control over their own affairs. Although Inuit did not have formal governments when they lived nomadically in scattered camps before being moved into permanent settlements by the Canadian government earlier in the 20th century, there were camp chiefs and an informal system of management that served Inuit well.

Operating in the business climate [25] of Nunavut can be a unique, enlightening, and profitable experience. Reaping the rewards of continuing developments [26] in mining, telecommunications, and construction, hot growth areas in Nunavut, mean understanding that things are done differently. Two protectionist policies help northern and Inuit owned businesses battle exorbitant costs of living, lack of skilled labor and other business obstacles: the government of the Northwest Territories and their Business Incentive Policy, and Article 24 of the Nunavut Land Claims Agreement [27]. These policies dramatically tilt the economic playing field because a free market environment does not yet reign here.

The Government of the Northwest Territories remains the single largest employer in many northern communities. The government's sphere of influence extends into the private sector as well. Its Business Incentive Policy favors qualified northern businesses vying for government contracts. Businesses receiving territorial grants are often obligated to use northern contractors, suppliers and manufacturers whenever possible. This policy is beneficial for the northern economy, however, there are some disadvantages. Orders may sometimes take exceedingly long to process and goods and services can bear inflated northern price tags. In addition, Nunavut is not short on bureaucracy. There may be a board, department, or agency for virtually everything. Often these groups need to approve major business deals, which can also slow transactions.

For a hunting society that has maintained a subsistence lifestyle for millennia, the addition of a wage economy is still relatively new to Inuit in Nunavut. Article 24 of the Nunavut Land Claims Agreement aims to see Inuit-owned businesses in Nunavut benefit from federal and Government of Northwest Territories contracts. Businesses must be at least 51% Inuit-owned. The clause is meant to give Inuit-owned enterprises an advantage as business opportunities boom and construction of Nunavut's infrastructure grows. Today they are making more business decisions in Nunavut at the community level, so more initiative is being focussed on job creation through the private sector and self-employment.

Nunavut's flourishing artistic output [28] is a unique phenomenon, especially given the harsh environment, limited resources and large volume of work of high quality, that issues from a relatively small population. Yet, it is the harshness of the environment and the limited resources that have contributed to the phenomenon. Inuit are extremely resourceful and because of this, they have survived. Men developed a high degree of these skills and ingenuity to fashion the tools necessary for survival. Women developed a high degree of technical skill to provide the clothing essential to survival. Along with the development of technical skill comes an intimate understanding of, and sensitivity to, the available materials. In addition, people from a hunting culture develop strong powers of observation and a strong visual memory, valuable assets for any artist. Traditionally, carvings told a story. Today, they have not told many younger carvers the stories that accompanied the carvings. More recently, social issues have become the theme of some artists' work. Self-expression, the common motivation of southern artists is not considered appropriate by the older generation of Inuit artists, but is appearing occasionally in the work of the younger ones.

The most common carving material is stone, more commonly called soapstone. Soapstone, or steatite was used for early carvings as it is soft and easily worked. However, because it breaks easily, it is not the best carving material. Most artists now work in serpentine, a stone similar in chemical composition, only harder. Argillite, quartzite, and marble are also used. They obtain most stone from quarry sites near each community, so identifying the community of origin by the appearance of the stone is generally possible. Within each community very individualistic styles exist and with familiarity, one can begin to pick out the work of individual artists. In the whole of Nunavut there is great variety from artist to artist.

Although many women work in stone, the federal government attempted to find activities in the art and fine craft field that would be more in keeping with women's traditional skills. A weaving project started in 1969 in Pangnirtung [29] produces beautiful tapestries using European tapestry techniques. Elders have taken and transformed the designs by highly skilled weavers. In Baker Lake [30], women began making garments for sale in the early 1960s. Winter parkas and vests cut from the heavy wool blanket, originally imported from England by the Hudson's Bay Company. They appliqued and embroidered the garments. The garment industry was not an easy one to master because of constant style changes and the remoteness of northern communities from fashion centers. It was found that the skills used to decorate parkas could be put to use to make beautiful cloth pictures as well.

There is evidence that Inuit women made dolls from the earliest times. The women of today have almost raised doll making to an art form. Each community has women who make dolls on a casual basis. The early inhabitants of the Arctic also worked in ivory and bone. Their work was small, as required by their nomadic lifestyle. It is natural then, that people today readily take to the production of jewelry. Even before they established a jewelry workshop in Iqaluit in the late 1960s, they produced much on an individual basis from local materials.

Inuit culture, like aboriginal culture from other parts of the world, has a long history of relating to and living off the land's natural resources, the flora and fauna indigenous to the circumpolar Arctic. It is this long and often intimate relationship with the land that has inspired its craftspeople and artists from ancient to modern times. One reason so many Inuit become such good artists or carvers is that they come from a very visual culture. Their very livelihood depended solely on dealing with the landscape everyday for hunting or gathering expeditions. They were always visualizing animals in their thoughts as they searched the land, waters and skies for game. It is not surprising, then, that their visual talents and imaginations were and are so easily manifested in their art.