The cultures of aboriginal peoples in Canada have evolved through thousands of years from ones of confident partnership with the land, through a diverse sharing of that land with Europeans, to domination and decline on reserves, designated settlements and urban anonymity [1]. However, over the past decade particularly, a notable cultural renewal is in progress. Aboriginal peoples have called for: 1. Control over their lives in place of the well-meaning but ruinous paternalism of past Canadian governments; 2. Lands, resources and self-chosen governments with which to reconstruct social, economic and political order; 3. Time, space and respect from Canada to heal their spirits and revitalize their culture.
Self-government [2]: The aboriginal peoples of North America were a series of nations [3] at the time of contact by Europeans. Those in Canada today wish to re-exercise the rights that nationhood implies. However, the process will involve a reconstruction of nations from the remaining splinters, the development and implementation of constitutions, administrative structures and personnel, and the negotiation of relations with other governments in Canada. At least three models of government are currently being studied: "Nation Government" (aboriginal peoples that have an exclusive territory and a strong sense of shared identity and a hierarchy of relationships); "Public Government" (a sharing of government by all people residing in a territory and thus involving both an aboriginal majority and a non-aboriginal minority); and "Community of Interest government" (a form that could operate in urban areas, with voluntary membership and giving special attention to education, health care, economic development and protection of cultures). All forms would incorporate some measure of aboriginal traditions.
Lands, Resources and Economic Development: In the past, lands and resources were key components for aboriginal well-being. Today, most of the land, even that put aside earlier for aboriginal use, has been lost to other uses and to other control(s). One of the foremost political and cultural issues in Canada today is to redistribute land in a way that will give aboriginal peoples enough land so that they have a physical, cultural and spiritual "home", for traditional pursuits such as hunting and trapping; and enough land and resources for economic self-reliance and for the financing of self-government. "Land-claims" and other negotiations are being vigorously researched and discussed [4] all over the country and aboriginal peoples have taken the initiative in a wide variety of economic development activities [5] such as "Aboriginal Supplier Inventory", ranging from co-management or full development of natural resources through transportation [6] and tourism, to communications [7].
Cultural Renewal: Although extended kin networks of parents, grandparents and clan members - in short, the family - has been traditionally central to aboriginal culture in Canada, the disruptions caused by residential schools (children educated away from family by non-aboriginal teachers), by cross-cultural foster-placement and adoption of children, and by migration to urban places, have been devastating. Aboriginal peoples have high rates of suicide amongst youth, of substance abuse, and of family violence. One aspect of restoring cultural vitality will be to restore respect for family.
There is also a clear need for improvement in health care. One aspect of this improvement will be an increasing level of local control. Many communities are bringing back traditional healing practices [8]. Housing conditions are well below Canadian standards in most aboriginal communities; but significant starts are being made in rebuilding.
Aboriginal cultures are responding dynamically to the challenges of renewal. Local control of education is being established, and a re-teaching of the aboriginal languages is a key policy. Hearing the voices of elders [9] is also important. Cultural artifacts [10] and practices are being recovered, documented, disseminated and put back into use, often combined in striking ways with the most cutting-edge technology [11]
Case Studies: Each of the following case studies represents somewhat different approaches to renewal. They are different in land area involved, in the relations between people and resources, and in the relations between peoples.
Nunavut: This is a new territory of Canada, created out of the vast Northwest Territories. Nunavut alone covers two million square kilometers. The new capital is Iqaluit [12]. Although 85 percent of its population is Inuit, its government represents all of its people [13]. The official Nunavut government web site [14] opens internet access to various official government institutions. The territory's commercial activities [15] can be checked on the WWW in a broad variety, including business directories and discussion groups.There is also an on-line weekly newspaper [16] produced in Iqaluit. The site of a commercial travel guidebook [17] includes audio lessons in Inuktitut and visual tours. Finally, one can listen live to the Canadian Broadcasting Corporation's [18] programming from Iqaluit.
The Nisga'a: This is an aboriginal group [19] located on the Nass River [20] in northwestern British Columbia [21] near the Alaska border. Recently they successfully negotiated an Agreement in Principle [22] for management of their lands and culture. One should watch the press for reporting of the progress in ratifying a final agreement [23] by the British Columbian and Canadian governments.
Ouje-Bougoumou Cree: This group "are the traditional inhabitants of a territory situated in northern Quebec comprised of 1000 square miles which has never been ceded, surrendered or conquered". They have been moved several times to accommodate resource extraction projects. During the last decade, they have taken a bold step to design and build a new village [24] based upon traditional Cree values.
Large Urban Places: Urban places are home to large numbers of aboriginal peoples. Statistics Canada reports that, in 1996, about twenty percent of Canada's aboriginal peoples lived in seven of the country's major cities [25]. Winnipeg had a larger aboriginal population than did all of the Northwest Territories and Nunavut combined. The official census counted only 16,100 in Toronto, but local reports put the number of people with aboriginal ancestry and who reside there perhaps for only a few years or part of a year at up to 100,000. Urban life provides both challenges and opportunities for aboriginal culture. Friendship Centres offer a variety of programmes to combat loneliness, unemployment and health problems. Cities also offer advanced learning centres and a chance to communicate. Urban aboriginal web sites are not as well developed as those in the other case studies. The site of the Ontario Federation of Indian Friendship Centre includes a gateway [26] to the Friendship Centres across Canada such as the Pine Native Centre [27] of Brant in Brantford, Ontario, which is close to the Six Nations band, the Native Canadian Centre [28] of Toronto. The number of sites listed on the WWW with Aboriginal Connections [29] ] is rapidly increasing. Finally, Indigenous Education Network [30] at the Ontario Institute for Studies in Education (OISE), is an "aboriginal presence at OISE/UT (University of Toronto), and a forum for discussion on issues relative to Aboriginal education and research".
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